Evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography and hydrocarbon distribution worldwide (I)

Fig. 1. Lithofacies paleogeography map of Timan-Pechora Basin and adjacent zones in Jurassic period.

The plate movement worldwide is continuous, and the plate structure framework is constantly changing^{[17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32]}. Therefore, while compiling lithofacies paleogeography restoration maps of the different strata, the precise geological ages of different strata were selected. According to the geological ages represented by the 13 strata, the Gplate software was used to obtain the lithofacies and paleogeography ArcGIS properties of 4981 basic geological units worldwide, and on the basis of these data the restoration maps were compiled. In the table that contains the global lithofacies and paleogeography ArcGIS property data of different geological ages (at the time), the 438 basic geological structural units with ancient geomagnetic data bound by Gplate software are the framework basic geological units used for restoring the global plates of different geological ages, and therefore the restored positions are relatively reliable. The restored positions of the other 4543 basic geological tectonic units at different geological ages (at that time) were determined by studying their geological records and analyzing their genetic relationship with the framework basic geological units, and then the restoration maps of lithofacies paleogeography were completed (Figs. 3-4).

The paleoclimate zones were superimposed on the lithofacies paleogeography restoration maps of different strata. The boundary of the paleoclimatic zones were determined on the basis of the paleo-latitude of the restoration maps, the lithofacies combinations with climatic indications (for instance, the tillite indicates the cold zone and the evaporite indicates the arid zone), the previous research results and the paleoclimatic research results of different geological periods around the world^{[17,18,19,20]} (Figs. 3-4).

2. The global lithofacies paleogeography of Precambrian

According to the global lithofacies paleogeography distribution characteristics of the Precambrian, through the lithofacies paleogeography restoration map of the paleo-plate tectonic positions of corresponding age of this system, the law of global lithofacies paleogeography distribution and paleoclimate were discussed briefly.

2.1. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography of Precambrian

The eastern side of the Baltic shield in the Eurasian region was lacustrine facies dominated by clastic rock and littoral facies dominated by metamorphic clastic rock. The southern part was mainly neritic facies of metamorphic clastic rock, metamorphic carbonate rock and metamorphic volcanic rock. The Siberian platform was littoral facies mainly composed of evaporite and carbonate rocks, and neritic facies of metamorphic carbonate rock developed in the ocean at the south, and other regions were uplift and denudation zones.

The northern part of North America was mainly neritic zone dominated by metamorphic clastic rock and carbonate rock, and the western Pacific coast was neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. Oceanic sediments developed in the east and the south, and other regions were uplift and denudation zones. The South American region was dominated by oceanic sediments composed of metamorphic clastic rock, and in the central part was mixed neritic facies of sandstone and carbonate rock.

The main body of the African region had oceanic sediments composed of metamorphic clastic rock. Some geological records are missing in the northwestern margin, central-northern, eastern, and southeastern regions, indicating these regions were uplift and denudation zones. Among the regions, the Gadamis Basin in the north of the Murzuq Basin was alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. The Taoudeni Basin, the Zaire Basin and the Nama-Karahari Basin were mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate. The region between the African and Eurasian had neritic facies and oceanic sediments dominated by sandstone and mudstone (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Global lithofacies paleogeography map of Precambrian system.

The main body of Oceania-Antarctica was uplift and denudation zone. The north of the Officer Basin and Arlanda Massif developed alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. The Karpentaria Basin on the eastern edge of Oceania was mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate. Almost all of Antarctica was uplift and denudation zone, except a small range of oceanic sediments composed of metamorphic clastic rock between the East Antarctica Shield and the West Antarctica Shield.

2.2. Distribution law of global lithofacies paleogeography around 630 Ma

All continental plates worldwide were located near the equator and in the southern hemisphere, but the Tarim, Australia and South China plates were located near 30° north latitude and were of warm temperate climate. The periphery regions of the Tarim and South China plates were neritic sediments, while the continental clastic sediments deposited inside the Australian plate, and the periphery region was clastic neritic sediments. India, Kalahari, Siberia, North China and Alaska plates were near the equator and were either arid or tropical climate. The plates of Arab, Antarctic, Sahara, West Africa, Congo, La Plata, Amazon, Laurent and others were near 30° south latitude, with a warm temperate climate. Svalbard and the Baltic shields were near 60° south latitude and of cold temperate climate. The periphery regions of the Alaska and North China plates held clastic neritic sediments. The Indian plate contained lacustrine clastic rock. The central and southern periphery regions of the plate had clastic neritic sediments, and the north neritic carbonate sediments. The southern part of the Siberian plate had neritic clastic sediments, and the northern part neritic carbonate and evaporating rock. The middle parts of all plates were uplift and denudation zones, and the periphery regions were mainly littoral-neritic clastic sediments. Continental clastic rock developed inside the La Plata and Laurent plates. Inside the Baltic shield was lacustrine clastic rock, and the periphery region was dominated by neritic clastic sediments. The southeast of the Svalbard plate was uplift zone and most northwest was neritic clastic and carbonate sediments (Fig. 3a).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Planar maps of restored global lithofacies paleogeography (the Late Precambrian to Silurian).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Planar maps of restored global lithofacies paleogeography (the Devonian to Permian).

3. Global lithofacies paleogeography during Paleozoic

3.1. Global lithofacies paleogeography of Cambrian

3.1.1. The Cambrian

The periphery of the Baltic Shield in the Eurasian region mainly developed neritic sediments, in the southwestern and northwestern margins were neritic facies dominated by metamorphic clastic rock, and in the northeastern margin was neritic clastic sediments with limited distribution. The region between the Baltic Shield and the Black Sea Basin developed neritic sediments dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate. The northeast of the Siberian platform surrounding the denudation zone of the Albanian Shield developed neritic sediments dominated by evaporite and dolomite, while the outermost marginal neritic sediments were mainly carbonate, and the whole central part of the platform had littoral sediments mainly composed of evaporite and dolomite. The margins of the Kazakhstan Shield, the Arabian Shield and the Arctic mainly developed mixed neritic carbonate rock, and the other regions were mostly uplift and denudation zones. Most of the North American Shield in North America-Greenland region was uplift and denudation zone, only the Chukchi Marginal Basin and the Northern Slope Basin in the northwest developed neritic facies dominated by metamorphic clastic rock and carbonate. Neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone occurred in the northern and eastern margins of Greenland, and the Gulf of Mexico in the south was dominated by the oceanic sediments of sandstone and mudstone.

Neritic sediments dominated by sandstone and mudstone developed in the western and northern margins of South America. The neritic mixed sandstone, mudstone and carbonate occurred in the San Francisco Basin. The Parana Basin and the Parnaiba Basin developed littoral facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. The region between the Guapore Shield and the Parana Basin chiefly had littoral sandstone and mudstone, and the other shields and cratons were all uplift and denudation zones. In Africa, the central and southern parts of Africa were uplift and denudation zones, while in the southern margin, a small zone in the north and the east, and the Taudini Basin was neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. In the Murzuq Basin was littoral facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. The Zaire Basin and the Senegal Basin had alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. The Darfur-Wadai Massif developed alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone.

In the Oceania, the northern part had mixed neritic sandstone, mudstone and carbonate, the middle is uplift and denudation zone, and southern part developed neritic sandstone and mudstone, and in the southeastern and eastern margins developed neritic carbonate. In the central and western parts of Oceania, the Papua Basin in the northeast corner was uplift and denudation zone, and a small uplift and denudation zone developed in the central and eastern parts. In Antarctica, the main body was uplift and denudation zone, and a small range of neritic volcanic rock and clastic rock occurred in the east (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Global lithofacies paleogeography map of Middle Cambrian series.

3.1.2. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography at 510 Ma

The Alaska plate was located near 60° north latitude and was of cold temperate climate, where neritic metamorphic clastic rock and carbonate rock developed. The North China and Laurent plates were located near 30° north latitude and of warm temperate climate. The periphery of the North China plate developed neritic clastic rock and carbonate. The Laurent plate and the periphery of Greenland plate in the east developed neritic clastic rock, and part of the western margin had alluvial clastic rock. The Siberian and Tarim plates were near the equator and of arid climate. The periphery regions of these plates had neritic clastic sediments, and the central part was littoral and salt marsh zone, indicating arid climate. The South China, Australia and Antarctic plates were also near the equator and were of tropical climate. In the South China plate was littoral-neritic clastic sediments. The southern part of the Australian plate was uplift and denudation zone, with small continental clastic alluvial zones appearing locally, and the rest of the plate had littoral-neritic clastic sediments. The Antarctic plate was uplift and denudation zone, and the marginal zone of the plate had neritic clastic sediments. The small plate between the Australian plate and the Antarctic plate was uplift and denudation zone. The Baltic, Indian, North Arab and African plates were located near 30° south latitude and of warm temperate climate. The Baltic, Indian and the central part of the Arabian plates were uplift and denudation zones, with continental clastic alluvial zones in local parts, and littoral-neritic sediments in the periphery. A small lacustrine zone developed within the Arab plate. The African plate was uplift and denudation zone, and in its periphery was clastic littoral-neritic sediments. The southern Arab, Avalon and South American plates were located south of 45° south latitude and were of cold temperate climate. The southern Arabian and Avalon plates developed littoral-neritic clastic sediments, and the continental clastic alluvial facies and uplift and denudation zones occurred in local parts. The central South American plate was dominated by clastic littoral-neritic sediments, and its two sides were uplift and denudation zones. A smaller part in its northwest had clastic lacustrine rock, and in the periphery were littoral-neritic sediments dominated by clastic rock and carbonate (Fig. 3b).

3.2. Global lithofacies paleogeography in Ordovician

3.2.1. Distribution of global lithofacies and paleogeography of Ordovician

In Eurasia, Baltic, Aldan, Arab, Indian and other shields and the Franz Josef Highland and Rocca trough, etc. were uplift and denudation zones. In the eastern margin of the Baltic Shield was littoral-neritic facies dominated by coarse clastic rock (e.g. the Timan- Pechora Basin); in the southeastern Pre-Caspian Basin was neritic clastic rock mixed with carbonate; inside the Baltic Shield developed littoral-neritic carbonate rock (Moscow Basin) and littoral-neritic clastic rock (Baltic Basin); at the northern, western and southern margins of the Baltic Shield were littoral-neritic facies characterized by metamorphic rock (e.g. the Barents Sea Basin, the Moor Basin, and the Northwest German Basin). Around the Irish Massif-Bohemian Massif was Avalon Massif accreting to the southern margin of the Baltic Shield during Caledonian period, where deposited neritic facies dominated by metamorphic volcanic rock and clastic rock. In the west and south sides of the Ukrainian Shield were neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rocks. In the north side of the Aldan Shield on Siberian platform was mixed littoral-neritic sandstone, mudstone, and carbonate, and most of the region was littoral-neritic carbonate. Evaporite developed in part of the northwestern Siberian platform and north Kara Sea platform. In the Arabian Shield and the northeastern side of the Indian Shield was mainly littoral-neritic terrigenous clastic rock. The Tarim Basin and the North China Plate had mainly neritic carbonate rock. The South China plate and the Lhasa massif had mixed littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate rock. The bathyal-abyssal zones among the Baltic, Arab, Indian, and Siberian plates were mainly paleo-ocean and drifting micro-Massifs and island arcs in the oceans indicated by the orogenic metamorphic rock.

The North American Shield (Selvin paleo-uplift-Big Bear Basin, Glenwell Province-North Saiwanding Massif) and Greenland Shield were uplift and denudation zones. In the depression zone at the southern part of the North American Shield (Hudson platform) developed neritic facies. In the periphery of the North American Shield developed: (1) alluvial facies composed of conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone (Selena Basin, Forest City Basin, etc.); (2) littoral-neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (Selvin Fold Belt, Michigan, Pamiya, Alberta Basins, etc.); and (3) neritic facies carbonate (Fox Basin, Illinois Basin, etc.). In the Chukchi Marginal Basin and the Northern Slope Basin were mixed neritic metamorphic clastic rock and metamorphic carbonate rock. In the northeastern margin of the Greenland Shield was littoral-neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone.

In South America, the Guyana Shield, Guapore Shield, and Rio La Plata Craton were uplift and denudation zones. In the regions between the uplifts and the northwestern and southwestern margins developed: (1) lacustrine facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (between the Guapore Shield and the Parana Basin); (2) littoral-neritic facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (Parana Basin); (3) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (Argentina Basin, Solimoes Basin, Panayiba Basin); (4) mixed neritic mudstone and carbonate rock (San Francisco Basin). In the Somkula Massif and the Marvinas Platform at the southern end of South America were bathyal-abyssal sediments.

In Africa, the central and southern parts were mainly uplift and denudation zones. Alluvial facies (Zaire Basin, Senegal Basin) of conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone developed between the uplift zones. In the north of the uplift zones developed: (1) alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. the Kufra Basin); (2) littoral facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. the Myrzug Basin). In the southern margin of the African region was mainly neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone.

In Australia, the central and west, part of the east, the Papua Basin, and the South Tasman Highland were uplift and denudation zones. Between the uplifts developed alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. the Officer Basin). In the northeast Australia was mainly mixed littoral-neritic facies composed of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock, while in the Eromanga Basin in the southeast developed neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone, and in the southeastern margin developed neritic carbonate facies.

The main body of Antarctica was uplift and denudation zone. In local part of the east developed neritic volcanic rock and clastic rock. In the north Antarctic Basin developed neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. In the northwestern corner, west side in the east and the north of the East Antarctic Shield developed neritic volcanic rock and clastic rock (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Global lithofacies paleogeography map of Lower Ordovician series.

3.2.2. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography at 480 Ma

The Alaska plate was located near 60° north latitude and was of cold temperate climate. The Alaska plate was neritic facies composed of metamorphic clastic rock and carbonate rock. The North China, Laurent, Siberia and Tarim plates were located near 30° north latitude and were of warm temperate climate. Small-scale uplift and denudation zones developed in part of the North China plate, and neritic clastic and carbonate zones developed at the margin. The Laurent plate and the Greenland plate to the east were uplift and denudation zones, the margin around was neritic clastic zone, and alluvial clastic zone lied in part of the western margin. In the northern part of the Siberian plate, a small-scale uplift and denudation zone developed, around it was clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies. The Tarim plate was littoral-neritic facies dominated by carbonate. The northeastern part of the Baltic Shield was located near the equator and of arid climate, so littoral-neritic carbonate and evaporite rock deposited there. The South China, Australia and Antarctic plates were located near the equator and 15° south latitude and of tropical climate. South China plate was neritic facies dominated by clastic rock and carbonate, with a small-scale uplift and denudation zone in local part. In the Australian plate, the south was uplift and denudation zone, small-scale continental clastic alluvial zones in the local parts, and clastic littoral-neritic facies in the rest. The Antarctic plate was uplift and denudation zone, and the margin around it was clastic littoral-neritic facies. The small plate between the Australian plate and the Antarctic plate was uplift and denudation zone. The Baltic, India, Northern Arabia, Africa and Avalon plates were located near 30° south latitude and of warm temperate climate. The central parts of the Baltic, Indian, Arab, and Avalon plates were uplift and denudation zones, continental clastic alluvial zones occurred in local parts, and littoral-neritic facies of clastic rock and carbonate developed in the margins of them. The African plate was uplift and denudation zone, and the margins around was clastic littoral-neritic facies. The south Arabian plate and the South American plate were located southwards of 45° south latitude and of cold temperate climate. The south Arabian plate was littoral-neritic facies of clastic rock and carbonate, while continental clastic alluvial facies and uplift and denudation zone occurred in local parts. In the South American plate, the central part was mainly clastic littoral-neritic facies. The regions on both sides of the central part were uplift and denudation zones. The smaller plate in the northwestern part developed lacustrine clastic rock, and in its margins were littoral-neritic sediments dominated by clastic rock and carbonate (Fig. 3c).

3.3. Global lithofacies paleogeography of Silurian

3.3.1. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography of Silurian

In Euroasia, Baltic, Aldan, Arab, Indian and other shields and the Franz Josef highland, Rocca trough, Kazakh massif, etc. were uplift and denudation zones. The eastern margin of the Baltic Shield was littoral-neritic facies dominated by carbonate rock (such as the Timan-Pechora Basin); the Pre-Caspian Basin in southeast developed neritic clastic rock mixed with carbonate rock. Inside the Baltic Shield were the lacustrine facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (Moscow Basin) and the littoral-neritic facies dominated by metamorphic clastic rock (the Baltic Basin), while the north, west and south margins of the Baltic Shield had littoral-neritic facies characterized by metamorphic rock (e.g. the Barents Sea, Moore, Northwest German basins). Along the Irish Massif-the Bohemian Massif was the Avalon Massif that accreted to the south margin of the Baltic Shield during the Caledonian period, where neritic facies dominated by metamorphic clastic rock occurred. The west and south sides of the Ukrainian Shield were neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock. In the north side of the Aldan Shield on the Siberian platform was mixed littoral-neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone, carbonate rock and volcanic rock, and most of the region was littoral-neritic facies dominated by carbonate rock. The western Siberian platform and the northern Kara Sea platform developed mixed neritic facies of clastic rock and carbonate rock. In the Arabian Shield and northeastern side of the Indian Shield was mainly littoral-neritic facies of the terrigenous clastic rock. In the Tarim Basin was mainly neritic facies of clastic rock. The South China plate and the Lhasa Massif were mixed littoral-neritic facies of clastic rock and carbonate rock. The bathyal-abyssal zones between the Baltic, Arab, Indian, and Siberian plates were mainly the paleo-ocean and drifting micro-massifs and island arcs in the oceans indicated by the orogenic metamorphic complex rock.

North American Shield (Prince-Regent Basin, Glenville-North Sai Wading Massif, Forest City Basin, northeastern and southeastern margins of North America, McClintock Basin) and Greenland Shield were uplift and denudation zones. Between the uplift zones developed: (1) alluvial facies composed of conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (Appalachian Foreland Basin); (2) littoral-neritic facies composed of carbonate rock (e.g. Fox Basin, Hudson platform). The margins around the North American Shield developed: (1) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. the Sverdrup Basin); (2) neritic facies composed of carbonate rock (e.g. the Alberta Basin); (3) mixed neritic facies composed of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock (e.g. the Permian Basin). In the Chukchi Marginal Basin and the Northern Slope Basin was neritic facies dominated by metamorphic clastic rock and carbonate rock. Neritic sandstone and mudstone sediments developed between the Chihuahua Basin and the Yucatan platform and the west region. In the Alfa Ridge, the southeastern, northern and eastern margins of Greenland, and the Gulf of Mexico Basin were oceanic sediments.

The eastern margin of South America, the Guyana Shield, the Guapore Shield, and the Rio La Plata Craton were uplift and denudation zones. Between the uplifts developed: (1) alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (northwest of Paranian Basin); (2) lacustrine facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (between Guapore Shield and Parana Basin); (3) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. the San Francisco Basin). In the southwestern and northwestern margins of South America was neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. The Somkula Massif was oceanic sediments.

In Africa, the central and southern parts were mainly uplift and denudation zones. In the southern margin and north of Africa, the Taoudeni Basin and the Senegal Basin was neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. In the Myrzug Basin was littoral facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone.

In Oceania-Antarctica, the Irgon Massif, the Aranda Massif, and the Papua Basin were uplift and denudation zones. In the Officer Basin, Eromanga Basin, Murray Basin, west side of the Irgun Massif, and southwestern side of the Papua Basin developed alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. In the northeast side of the Browse Basin developed the littoral-neritic and salt marsh facies dominated by evaporative salt rock. In the northern part of Oceania, the region between Irgun Massif and the Browse Massif was mainly mixed neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock. The main body of Antarctica was uplift and denudation zone, and in the areas near the Pacific Ocean developed extensive neritic facies of volcanic rock and clastic rock (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. Global lithofacies paleogeography map of Lower Silurian series.

3.3.2. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography at 430 Ma

The Amur plate was located north of 60° north latitude and of cold temperate climate, and was clastic littoral-neritic facies. The North China, Siberia and Tarim plates were located near 30° north latitude and of warm temperate climate. The inner North China plate was a small-scale uplift and denudation zone, and the surrounding margin developed clastic littoral-neritic facies. In the Siberian plate, the northwestern part was a small-scale uplift and denudation zone, and in the surrounding margin was clastic neritic sediments. In the Tarim plate, some small uplift and denudation zones developed inside and clastic littoral-neritic sediments in the surrounding margins. The North Laurent, South China and North Australia, Alaska and Kazakhstan plates were located near the equator and were of tropical climate. The northern part of the Laurent plate was mainly uplift and denudation zone, and its middle part developed lacustrine clastic rock and small-scale terrigenous clastic alluvial facies. The Alaska plate had mainly littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate. The South China, northern Australia and the middle of Kazakhstan plate were all uplift and denudation zones, and the margins around were littoral-neritic clastic sediments. Central Australia and southern part of South China were located near the equator and of arid climate. In the South China plate, the middle part was uplift and denudation zone, and the surrounding margin had littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate. In the Australian plate developed large-scale alluvial clastic rock, while littoral-neritic facies of carbonate rock and evaporite rock occurred in the west, indicating arid climate, and littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate deposited in the surrounding margin. The southern Laurent, Avalon, India, Arabia, North Africa and Antarctic plates were located near 30° south latitude and were of warm temperate climate. The hinterlands of these plates were uplift and denudation zones, and the margins around them were littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate. Clastic alluvial zones developed in southern Laurent plate and part of the Australian plate. The South American and Southern African plates were located south of 60° south latitude and were of cold temperate climate. The regions inside these plates were all uplift and denudation zones, and surrounding margins around them developed littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate and clastic alluvial zones in local parts (Fig. 3d).

3.4. Global lithofacies paleogeography of Devonian

3.4.1. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography of Devonian

Most parts of Eurasia were uplift and denudation zones. The northwestern and southwestern Europe were alluvial zones dominated by conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone (e.g. the Moore Basin and the southern Irish Massif, the Iberia Massif, etc.). The eastern margin of the Baltic Shield was littoral-neritic facies dominated by carbonate rock (e.g. the Timan-Pechora Basin); the Pre-Caspian Basin in the southeast was lacustrine facies of clastic rock. Inside the Baltic Shield developed lacustrine facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (the Baltic Basin). The southern margin of the Baltic Shield was littoral-neritic facies characterized by metamorphic rock (e.g. the Northwest German Basin, Bohemian Massif, etc.). The western and southern flanks of the Ukrainian Shield were mixed neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock. Inside the Siberian platform, alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone developed in local parts. The North Kara Sea platform developed neritic facies of clastic rock. The Arabian Shield and the northeastern side of Indian Shield mainly developed littoral-neritic terrigenous clastic rock and evaporite locally. The Tarim Basin was dominated by littoral-neritic clastic rock. The Lhasa Massif developed mixed littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate rock. The bathyal-abyssal zones among the Baltic, Arab, North China, India, and Siberian plates were mainly the paleo-ocean and drifting micro-massifs, island arcs in the oceans indicated by the orogenic metamorphic complex rock.

The North American region (Churchill Province-Anderson Plain, Severn Paleo-uplift-Celina Basin) and the Greenland Shield were mainly uplift and denudation zones. Inside the North American plate developed: (1) littoral zone and the salt marsh dominated by evaporite and carbonate rocks (Hudson platform); (2) alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (Appalachian Foreland Basin); (3) littoral-neritic facies of carbonate rock (e.g. the Michigan Basin). Around the North American plate developed: (1) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. the Selwin Fold Belt, the Permian Basin, etc.); (2) carbonate neritic facies (e.g. the Alberta Basin). Neritic facies of metamorphic clastic rock developed in the north of the McClintock Basin—Princes-Regent Basin. The Chukchi Marginal Basin and the North Slope Basin were neritic zones dominated by metamorphic clastic rock and carbonate rock. In the Gulf of Mexico Basin—the South Georgia Basin and the southeastern edge of North America area, the Alaska Mountains—Ominika Belt were oceanic sediments indicated by metamorphic complex rock.

In South America, the uplift and denudation zones were scattered (eastern margin, Guyana Shield, and Guapore Shield, etc.). Between the uplift zones developed: (1) lacustrine facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (between the Guapore Shield and the Parana Basin); (2) littoral-neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. the Solimos Basin, Parana Basin, etc.). In the western margin of South America developed: (1) neritic facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone (Chaco-Parana Basin); (2) mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock (Maracaibo Basin). In the Somkula zone was oceanic sediments.

In Africa, the central and southern parts were mainly uplift and denudation zones. In the uplift zones, alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone developed (Chad Area). In the northern and southern margins of Africa developed: (1) littoral facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. the Myrzug Basin, the Taudani Basin, the Karoo Basin, etc.); (2) mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock (e.g. Tindorf Basin).

In the Oceania, the uplift and denudation zones were distributed separately (Irgan Massif, Aranda Massif, Blaus Massif, Papua Basin). Between the uplift zones were mainly alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (Officer Basin, Eromanga Basin, Murray Basin, Kapentaya Basin). Between the Blaus Massif and the Aravara Basin developed littoral facies and salt marsh dominated by evaporite. In the western side of Oceania, and between Kabentalia Basin and the Queensland Plateau developed neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. In Antarctica, the main body was uplift and denudation zone, and in the area near the Pacific Ocean developed extensive neritic facies of volcanic rock and clastic rock (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Global lithofacies paleogeography map of Middle Devonian series.

3.4.2. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography at 390 Ma

The Amur plate, located north of 60° north latitude with cold temperate climate, was a clastic neritic zone. The Siberian plate was located near 45° north latitude with warm temperate climate. The central part was uplift and denudation zone, local part was alluvial zone of clastic rock and the rest was neritic clastic rock. The northern part of Laurussia, the northern part of Galatia, Kazakhstan, Tarim, South China and North China plates were located near the equator and were of tropical climate. The northern part of the Laurussia mainland was mainly uplift and denudation zone, lacustrine facies of clastic rock developed inside and littoral-neritic facies of clastic rock and carbonate rock at the margin. The regions inside the northern part of Galatia, Kazakhstan, Tarim, South China and North China plates were all uplift and denudation zones, and the margins around them were neritic clastic rock zones. The south Laurussia, southern Galatia, Arabia and Australia plates were located near 15° south latitude and were of dry climate. In the southern part of the Galatia Plate developed mainly littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate rock. The south Laurussia, Arabia and Australia plates were all uplift and denudation zones, where larger littoral-neritic facies of carbonate rock and evaporite rock developed, and in the margins around them were littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate rock. Inside the southern Laurussia and Australian plate developed larger clastic alluvial zones. South America and northern part of Africa, India and the Antarctic plates were located near 45° south latitude and were of warm temperate climate. The hinterlands of these plates were uplift and denudation zones, and in the margins around them developed littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate rock. South America and southern part of Africa were located in the south of 60° south latitude and were of cold temperate climate. The interior regions of these plates were uplift and denudation zones, and in the margins around them deposited littoral-neritic clastic and carbonate rocks. In the hinterland of South America developed lacustrine clastic rock, and in the inland of Africa developed alluvial zone of clastic rock (Fig. 4a).

3.5. Global lithofacies paleogeography of Carboniferous

3.5.1. Distribution of global lithofacies and paleogeography of Carboniferous

Western Europe and central Asia were mostly uplift and denudation zones. The central and southern parts of the Siberian platform were coal-bearing alluvial zones. The Siberian platform was surrounded by neritic facies, the central and south-middle parts were dominated by sandstone and mudstone, while the northern margin and the west were dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock. The regions among the southern Baltic Shield and the Ukrainian Shield, the North Kara Sea platform, Nova Zemla, and the Iberia Massif, etc. were mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock. The Timan-Pechora, the northern part of the Volga-Ural Basin, etc. were littoral-neritic facies dominated by carbonate rock. The Pre-Caspian Basin was neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. The Bohemian Massif was neritic zone dominated by volcanic and clastic rocks. The western Siberian Basin was neritic facies dominated by metamorphic volcanic rock and metamorphic clastic rock, and the western part was neritic facies of metamorphic clastic rock and metamorphic carbonate rock. The northeastern German-Polish Basin was neritic facies dominated by metamorphic clastic rock and metamorphic carbonate rock. The south side of Altai-Aldan was neritic facies indicated by metamorphic rock. The Tarim Basin, North China margin and the Qiangtang Basin developed mixed neritic facies of clastic and carbonate rocks. The Zagros Basin and South China plate were dominated by neritic facies of carbonate rock. In the northern margin of the Indian plate developed mainly neritic clastic rock. The Ural Basin, Central Asia Fold Belt and the Western Siberian Basin were bathyal-abyssal sediments.

The North America and Greenland plates were mainly uplift and denudation zones. The southern part of North America, the Selvin Fold Belt and the southwestern part of the Alberta Basin were neritic facies of carbonate rock. The Chukchi Marginal Basin and the Northern Slope Basin developed neritic facies of metamorphic clastic and carbonate rocks. The Lomosonov Ridge was neritic facies composed mainly of sandstone and mudstone. The Gulf of Mexico Basin—the western part of the South Georgia Basin, the southeastern edge of North America, and the Alaska Range—Chihuahua Basin were bathyal-abyssal facies.

In the hinterland of South America, the uplift and denudation zones were distributed separately. In the Chaco-Parana Basin was alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. In the San Francisco Basin was lacustrine facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone. In the western and northwestern parts of South America, the area between the Guyana Shield and the Guapore Shield developed neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. In the Solimois Basin developed mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock. The Somkula Massif and the Marvinas Platform were bathyal-abyssal facies.

In Africa, the central and southern parts were mostly uplift and denudation zones. In the southwestern and southern margins, the northeastern part of the Okowango Basin, and the Zaire Basin were alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone. In the Murzuq Basin was littoral facies and salt marsh dominated by clastic rock and evaporite. In the northern part was mainly neritic facies composed of sandstone and mudstone, and in the northern margin was mainly mixed neritic facies composed of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock.

In Oceania, the Yilgarn Massif, Aranda Massif and Papua Basin were uplift and denudation zones. In the south side of the Laklan Fold Belt and the Aranda Massif developed alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. In North Oceania, the Officer Basin, the Kabentalia Basin, the Eromanga Basin, and the Murray Basin, etc. developed alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. In the Browse Massif developed mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate. In the west side of Oceania developed neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone in local parts.

The main body of Antarctica was uplift and denudation zone. In the Antarctic Basin-northern East Antarctic Shield developed alluvial facies dominated by volcanic clastic rock. In the east developed neritic facies of volcanic rock and clastic rock. In the north of East Antarctic Shield and western West Antarctic Shield developed neritic facies of volcanic clastic rock extensively (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9.

Fig. 9. Global lithofacies paleogeography map of Lower Carboniferous series.

3.5.2. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography at 350 Ma

The Siberia and Amur plates were located near 30° north latitude and were of warm temperate climate. In the Siberian Plate, the main part was uplift and denudation zone, the southwest was clastic alluvial zone, and the margins developed neritic clastic rock. In the Amur Plate was neritic clastic rock. The northern part of Laurussia, located near 15° north latitude and arid in climate, was mainly uplift and denudation zone. The region inside it developed littoral-neritic sediments of carbonate rock and evaporite rock, and some regions developed alluvial clastic rock, and the periphery developed littoral-neritic clastic rock. The southern part of Laurussia, Kazakhstan, Tarim, Galatia, North China, South China and Australia plates were located near the equator and were of tropical climate. Most regions of the Kazakhstan, Tarim, Galatia, North China and South China plates were uplift and denudation zones, and their periphery regions had littoral-neritic clastic rock. The middle Laurussian plate was uplift and denudation zone, alluvial clastic rock occurred in local parts, and littoral-neritic clastic rock in the margin. In the hinterland of Australia was mostly alluvial clastic rock, in local parts came uplift and denudation zones, and in the periphery was littoral-neritic clastic rock. South America and northern Africa, India and the Antarctic plates were located near 45° south latitude and of warm temperate climate. The regions inside these plates were uplift and denudation zones, and the periphery regions developed littoral-neritic clastic rock. In the hinterland of India developed alluvial clastic rock zones. South America and southern part of Africa were located in the south of 60° south latitude with cold temperate climate, and mostly were uplift and denudation zones, with alluvial zones of clastic rock in local parts, and littoral-neritic clastic rock and carbonate in the margins (Fig. 4b).

3.6. Global lithofacies paleogeography of Permian

3.6.1. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography of Permian

In the Eurasian region, the eastern and southern parts of the Baltic Shield were neritic facies dominated by carbonate rock, and the southwestern part was lacustrine facies composed of sandstone and mudstone. The west side of the Volga-Ural Basin developed alluvial zone dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone, and littoral-neritic and salt marsh facies dominated by evaporite and carbonate rock. The Ukrainian Shield developed littoral-neritic and salt marsh facies dominated by evaporite. The eastern margin of the Siberian Platform developed neritic facies and lacustrine facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone, while the central, northern and western parts were alluvial zones dominated by coal-bearing rock, and other regions were uplifted and denudation zones. The middle-west part of the Kazakhstan Shield developed littoral facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone, and the southeast developed alluvial zones dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. The central part of the Syr Darya Basin developed littoral-neritic and salt marsh facies dominated by evaporite and carbonate rock. The neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock developed in the central and northeastern part of the Timan-Pechora Basin, the western part of the Ural Fold Belt, and the northeastern part of the Volga-Ural Basin. The southwestern of North Caucasus Platform, the Eastern Siberia Abyssal Basin, the northeastern margin of the Siberian Platform, and the southwestern margin of the northern Ustchurt Basin were bathyal-abyssal facies.

The main bodies of North America-Greenland and South American regions were uplift and denudation zones. The north margin and the west side of North America developed neritic carbonate sediments. The Parana Basin in the central of South America and southwest of the Guapore Shield developed mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock. The San Francisco Basin developed lacustrine facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone. Alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone developed in the Banayiba Basin and the west of Guapore Shield.

In Africa, the main body was uplift and denudation zones, and in several basins in the north, central and south regions developed alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. The east and southeast corners of Oceania developed alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone, and mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate rock developed in the northern margin and the eastern margin. In Antarctica, the main body was uplift and denudation zones, and neritic facies of small-scale volcanic rock and clastic rock developed in the eastern part (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10.

Fig. 10. Global lithofacies paleogeography map of Middle Permian.

3.6.2. Distribution of global lithofacies paleogeography of 270 Ma

The northeastern part of Eurasia, Amur, North China and northern part of South China were located near 30° north latitude and of warm temperate climate, where uplift and denudation zones developed inside and littoral-neritic clastic rock developed in the margins. The Laurent, Tarim and Kazakhstan plates were at 45° north latitude and near the equator and arid in climate, inside of which uplift and denudation zones and continental alluvial zones of clastic rock developed, and littoral-neritic clastic rock occurred in the margins. South America and the southern part of Africa, India and northern Australia were mainly located between 30° and 60° south latitude, with a warm temperate climate. The regions inside these plates were uplift and denudation zones, with different scales of alluvial zones of continental clastic rock, and in the periphery regions were littoral-neritic sediments. The Antarctic, India, and southern Australia were located north of 60° south latitude, with a cold temperate climate. The regions inside these plates were uplift and denudation zones, and the margins around them developed littoral-neritic clastic rock. In the South Australia developed larger continental clastic rock alluvial zones (Fig. 4c).

4. Conclusions

Based on the geological properties of lithofacies and paleogeography of 4981 basic geological units we defined in the world, the lithofacies paleogeography maps of 13 Periods (or Epochs) since the Precambrian Period were compiled; together with the latest and most systematic restoration results on plates and land massifs, the lithofacies paleogeography maps of plate positions at the key time nodes in 13 Periods (or Epochs) were compiled, realizing systematic, seamless and refined paleogeography mapping.

Since the Precambrian, there developed 22 lithofacies combinations, namely, conglomerate + sandstone + mudstone, sandstone + mudstone, sandstone + mudstone + carbonate rock, evaporite + carbonate rock, evaporite + clastic rock, evaporite, carbonate rock, mudstone, coal-bearing series, hailstone, volcanic rock, volcanic rock + clastic rock, volcanic rock + carbonate rock, metamorphic carbonate rock, metamorphic clastic rock, metamorphic clastic rock + carbonate rock, metamorphic volcanic rock + carbonate rock, metamorphic volcanic rock + clastic rock, metamorphic volcanic rock + clastic rock + carbonate rock, metamorphic volcanic rock, metamorphic rock, orogenic belt complex rock), and 10 paleogeography units, uplift and denudation zone, alluvial zone, lacustrine zone, littoral zone, neritic zone, littoral-neritic + salt marsh, delta, island arc, bathyal- abyssal zone, and sea bottom fan in the world.

Based on the study results, during the stage of global plates divergence and sea level rise, the littoral-neritic zones dominated by coarse clastic, alluvial zones the uplift and denudation zones shrank, while the shallow water carbonate rock platforms enlarged; During the stage of plate convergence and the sea level drop, the evolution laws of lithofacies paleogeography were opposite. For example, during the late Precambrian and Cambrian, the period of large-scale divergence of the Rodinian supercontinent, uplift and denudation zones and the continental clastic rock zones reduced in size, while the littoral-neritic facies and the shallow water carbonate platform expanded. During Devonian, along with the formation of the Laurussian supercontinent, the uplift and denudation zones and continental clastic facies began to increase in scale, while the littoral-neritic facies zones and the shallow water carbonate platforms shrank. During Permian, then the Pangea Continent was formed, the development of the global uplift and denudation zones and the continental clastic zones reached prime, and the littoral-neritic zones were very limited.

Nomenclature

A—Aldan Shield;

Ad—Anderson Plain;

Af—Aravora-Money Shoal Basin;

AF—Appalachian Foreland Basin;

Ah—Amhara Massif;

Ak—Alaska Mountains;

Al—Alberta Basin;

Alk—Kufra Basin;

Ara—Arabian Shield;

Ard—Aranda Massif;

AS—Altai-Sayan Fold Belt;

Ba—Baltic Shield;

Bab—Baltic Basin;

Be—Bengal Basin;

BG—Bohai Bay Basin;

Bi—Bight Basin;

BP—Baikal-Patom Fold Belt;

Br—Browse Basin;

Bs—Black Sea Basin;

BS—Balundian Sea Basin;

BSt—Baoun-Surat Basin;

C—Chihuahuan Basin;

Ca—Carpentalia Basin;

Can—Canning Basin;

Cau—Cauvery Basin;

CA—Central African Shield;

CB—Chukchi Marginal Basin;

CF—Lower Congo Basin;

Ch—Chukchi Northern Basin;

Cha—Chaco-Parana Basin;

Cl—Challenger Plateau;

Chd—Chad Area;

Co—coastal crystalline basement;

CP—Churchill Province;

Da—Darfur-Ouaddai Massif;

De—Degan Syncline;

EA—East Antarctic Shield;

Er—Eromanga Basin;

ES—East China Sea Shelf Basin;

EV—Eastern Venezuelan Basin;

F—Forest City Basin;

FdA—Foslin Amazon Basin;

Fj—Franz Josef Highland;

Fl—Florida Platform;

Fo—Fox Basin;

FP—Falkland Plateau Basin;

G—Grampian Uplift;

Ga—Galician Basin;

GB—Big Bear Basin;

GC—Gulf of Mexico Basin;

Gh—Gadamais Basin;

Gp—Guapore Shield;

Gr—Glenville Province;

Grl—Greenland Shield;

Gu—Guerrero Basin;

Gy—Guyana Shield;

Hd—Hudson Platform;

HO—Hangayn-Henteyn and Onon-Argun Fold Belt;

Ib—Iberian Massif;

In—Indian Fan;

K—Kazakhstan Shield;

Ka—Kapval Massif;

Ko—Korema Massif;

Kr—Karu Basin;

La—Lakeland Fold Belt;

Le—Rio Block;

Lf—Lofoten Deep Sea Basin;

Li—Yanos Basin;

Lu—London-Brabant Platform;

LS—Labrador Shelf;

Ma—Makarov Basin;

Mar—Maracaibo Basin;

Mc—McClintock Basin;

MdD—Madre De Dios Basin;

Mdg—Madagascar Massif;

Me—Mezen Basin;

Mi—Michigan Basin;

Ml—Maldives-Laksha Basin;

Mld—Muglad Basin;

Mo—More Basin;

Mrn—Maranon Basin;

Msc—Moscow Basin;

Mu—Murzuq Basin;

Mur—Murray Basin;

Nak—Nama-Karabari Basin;

Nb—Nuba Massif;

NC—New Caledonia Basin;

ND—Nile Delta Basin;

Ne—Nemakken Basin;

NG—German-Polish Basin;

NK—Northern Platform of the Kara Sea;

No—Norfolk Basin;

NS—Northern Slope Basin;

NU—North Ustchurt Basin;

Nw—Norwegian Basin;

Of—Officer Basin;

Ok—Okhotsk Massif;

Oka—Okavango Basin;

Om—Omron Massif;

Omn—Dominican Belt;

Or—Ordos Basin;

P—Permian Basin;

Pa—Papua Basin;

Pac—Pacific Marginal Tertiary Basin;

Par—Parana Basin;

PA—Princes Alberta Monocline;

Pb—Banayiba Basin;

Pe—Perotas Basin;

PK—Zhongjin South Basin;

PN—Nova Zembla Foredeep;

Pr—Precaspian Basin;

PR—Prince-Regent Basin;

PRM—Pearl River Mouth Basin;

Ptg—Potiguar Basin;

Qi—Qiangtang Basin;

R—La Plata Craton;

Rub—Empty Quarter Basin;

S—Siberian Platform;

Sa—San Francisco Basin;

SA—West Coast Basin of Africa;

Sc—Scotian Basin;

SD—Syr-Darya Basin;

Se—Selvin Fold Belt;

Sen—Senegal Basin;

SG—South Georgia Basin;

Si—Sichuan Basin;

Sln—Salina Basin;

Sm—Somuncura Massif;

So—Solimois Basin;

Son—Songliao Basin;

Sou—Somalia Basin;

SO—South Meilanmei Basin;

SP—Antarctic Basin;

SS—Sand Spring Valley Basin;

St—Santos Basin;

Stm—South Tasman Highland;

Su—Superior Province;

Sum—Sumatra Baisn;

Sv—Selvin Paleo-uplift;

Ta—Taoudenni Basin;

Tar—Tarim Basin;

Tg—Tanzanika Shield;

Ti—Tindorff Basin;

TP—Timan-Pechora Basin;

TS—Thai-Shan Terrane;

Tu—Tukano Basin;

U—Ukrainian Shield;

UE—Upper Egypt Basin;

Ur—Ural Fold Belt;

VU—Volga-Ural Basin;

WA—West Antarctic Shield;

Wi—Williston Basin;

WS—Western Siberian Basin;

Ye—Yemark Basin;

Yi—Yilgarn Massif;

Yu—Yucatan Platform;

Za—Zaire Basin;

Zag—Zagros Province;

Zi—Zimbabwe Shield.

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