Petroleum Exploration and Development Editorial Board, 2020, 47(1): 154-160 doi: 10.1016/S1876-3804(20)60014-3

RESEARCH PAPER

Harmony search optimization applied to reservoir engineering assisted history matching

SHAMS Mohamed,1,*, EL-BANBI Ahmed2, SAYYOUH Helmy3

1. Dana Gas, Plot 188, City Center, 5th Settlement, New Cairo, 11835 Egypt

2. Petroleum Engineering Department, AUC/Cairo University, New Cairo/Giza, 11835/12613 Egypt

3. Petroleum Engineering Department, Cairo University, Giza, 12613 Egypt

Corresponding authors: E-mail: mohamed.shams@danagas.com

Received: 2019-02-16   Revised: 2019-12-5   Online: 2020-02-15

Abstract

Based on the analysis of characteristics and advantages of HSO (harmony search optimization) algorithm, HSO was used in reservoir engineering assisted history matching of Kareem reservoir in Amal field in the Gulf of Suez, Egypt. HSO algorithm has the following advantages: (1) The good balance between exploration and exploitation techniques during searching for optimal solutions makes the HSO algorithm robust and efficient. (2) The diversity of generated solutions is more effectively controlled by two components, making it suitable for highly non-linear problems in reservoir engineering history matching. (3) The integration between the three components (harmony memory values, pitch adjusting and randomization) of the HSO helps in finding unbiased solutions. (4) The implementation process of the HSO algorithm is much easier. The HSO algorithm and two other commonly used algorithms (genetic and particle swarm optimization algorithms) were used in three reservoir engineering history match questions of different complex degrees, which are two material balance history matches of different scales and one reservoir history matching. The results were compared, which proves the superiority and validity of HSO. The results of Kareem reservoir history matching show that using the HSO algorithm as the optimization method in the assisted history matching workflow improves the simulation quality and saves solution time significantly.

Keywords: reservoir engineering ; assisted history matching ; optimization algorithm ; harmony search optimization algorithm

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Cite this article

SHAMS Mohamed, EL-BANBI Ahmed, SAYYOUH Helmy. Harmony search optimization applied to reservoir engineering assisted history matching. [J], 2020, 47(1): 154-160 doi:10.1016/S1876-3804(20)60014-3

Introduction

Manual history matching is a time consuming and often frustrating process[1,2,3,4,5]. In recent years, several approaches have been introduced to automate several tasks of the process. The concept of the assisted history matching is as simple as converting the history matching problem to an optimization problem with the objective of minimizing the difference between actual observations (e.g. pressure, rate, and saturation distribution) and simulated data. The workflow of assisted history matching is usually composed of three main elements: experimental design, proxy modeling, and optimization. Shams et al.[6] proposed a detailed description of the assisted history matching process and a newly workflow.

HSO is a stochastic optimization algorithm developed by Geem et al.[7] and inspired by harmony improvisation of musicians searching for the best harmonious performance[8]. Likewise, an optimal solution of an optimization problem is the best solution available of the problem under the given objectives and the predefined constraints. Similarities between the two processes were used to develop the new optimization algorithm, namely, HSO, which has never been used before in reservoir engineering questions.

HSO algorithm was used in optimization part of assisted history matching in this study and compared with other two popular algorithms, genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm algorithm (PSO). Of them, GA is the most widely used algorithm in commercial assisted history matching software, and PSO is one of the latest high efficiency global optimization techniques. The application results of these algorithms in 3 assisted reservoir engineering history matching questions to verify the effectiveness of the HSO algorithm. Finally, the HSO was used in the numerical simulation of a mature oil reservoir with gas cap that has been developed for 28 years. Its history matching results were compared with the results from manual history matching and GA assisted history matching.

1. Optimization techniques

Optimization algorithms include two categories: deterministic and stochastic algorithms[8]. Deterministic optimization is the classical approach of optimization methods which completely depends on linear algebra. In deterministic optimization, the gradient of the mathematical model is calculated to optimize the parameter to minimize the objective function. The solution of this kind of algorithm is a local optimum but not the global optimum. A local optimum maxima or minima is not the real optimal solution. Due to the non-uniqueness nature of the history matching questions, we expect to have several local minima, and therefore the deterministic algorithms can’t work effectively in solving this kind of question[9]. In contrast, the stochastic optimization concept is based on employing randomness in the search procedure[10]. Several stochastic optimization algorithms, such as simulated annealing[11,12,13], heat-bath algorithm[14], GA[15,16,17,18], evolutionary strategy[19,20,21,22], scatter search optimization[23], simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation[24,25,26], ensemble Kalman filters[27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34], PSO[35], ant colony algorithm[36], have been tested in reservoir engineering assisted history matching[37,38,39,40]. In this work, HSO algorithm was introduced into assisted history matching of reservoir engineering and compared with two other optimization algorithms (GA and PSA) commonly used in this kind of research.

1.1. Harmony search optimization

As mentioned above, HSO algorithm is inspired by harmony improvisation of musicians searching for the best harmonious performance. The music harmony improvisation process is usually divided three steps: (1) Selecting a satisfactory pitch of music from the musicians’ memory; (2) Selecting a pitch of music similar to the satisfactory pitch and then adjusting slightly; (3) Composing a new or random pitch. The sets of better harmony are memorized and the poor sets are discarded. The harmony sets are updated continuously until the best harmony is achieved. The three steps of the music harmony improvisation process were formalized by Geem et al.[7] in an attempt to mimic the inherent optimization procedure, that is the harmony search optimization algorithm (HSO). The steps of HSO algorithm are as follows: firstly, initializing the harmony memory. Then generate new solution vectors, and their components can be generated by 3 mechanisms, namely, (1) keeping some components in the harmony memory, with a retention probability of harmony memory as HMCR; (2) Generating some components stochastically, with the probability of 1-HMCR, (3) Adjusting the new components from (1) and (2), if the evaluation function of the new solution vector is better than the worst solution in the harmony memory, then the new solution vector is used to replace the worst solution; and the calculations ends when the terminal conditions are met (for example, reaching the maximum iterative times). The main control factors of HSO algorithm are the size and retention probability of harmony memory and pitch adjustment probability (PAR).

(1) The size of harmony memory. The harmony memory is a simple matrix that represents the fundamental structure of the HSO algorithm and composed of the best solution vectors. Each row in the harmony memory matrix represents a solution vector and the last column represents the vector’s fitness value. Before the optimization process begins, the harmony memory is initialized with the randomly generated solution vectors. The solution vectors can be randomly chosen around a point that may represent an area in the search design space where the optimum is most likely to be found. In reservoir engineering assisted history matching, the harmony memory matrix can be initialized with solution vectors equal to the most likely values of the history matching parameters. The most likely values of the history matching parameters can be determined by reservoir engineers from experience or simple taken the median of each studied history matching parameter. In a M-dimensional optimization question, the harmony memory matrix can be expressed as the following:

$\left[ \begin{array}{*{35}{l}}A_{1,1}^{{}} & \cdots & A_{1,M}^{{}} & \left| {{\phi}_{1}} \right. \\\text{ }\vdots & {} & \text{ }\vdots & \text{ }\vdots \\A_{S\text{,1}}^{{}} & \cdots & A_{S,M}^{{}} & \left| {{\phi}_{S}} \right. \\\end{array} \right]$

(2) Retention probability of harmony memory (HMCR): Value selection in a harmony memory is like the process of musician selecting a satisfactory pitch to ensure the rendition of good music piece. In HSO, HMCR selects the best fit solution value for each variable to ensure the carrying-over of the best harmony to the new harmony memory. HMCR is a probability in the range of 0 to 1. If the HMCR selected is too low, only a few best harmonies are selected, and the convergence may be slow. If the HMCR selected is too high (close to 1), almost all the harmonies are used in the harmony memory and then other harmonies are not explored well. This may lead to potentially wrong solutions. Therefore, in most applications, HMCR is set between 0.70 and 0.95[7].

(3) Pitch adjustment probability (PAR). Pitch adjustment is similar to playing a pitch of music similar to a satisfactory music piece. In HSO, pitch adjustment is equivalent to the process of creating a slightly different solution. By adjusting a pitch stochastically, a new solution is created around an existing good solution. By applying PAR (0-1) to control the degree of adjustment. If a low adjusting rate parameter with a narrow bandwidth is assigned, the search will be limited in a sub-space of the search space, and then the convergence of the harmony search will decrease. Conversely, if a high adjusting rate parameter with a wide bandwidth is assigned, the probability of having scattered solutions around potential optima will increase. Thus, the PAR is set between 0.1 and 0.5 in most cases[7].

1.2. Superiority of HSO

The reasons why HSO works better in reservoir engineering assisted history matching questions than other algorithms are: (1) The good balance between exploration and exploitation during searching for optimal solutions makes the HSO algorithm robust and efficient. Exploration means that the algorithm is able to generate a series of solutions including the potentially optimal ones, explore the whole search space and avoid sticking to local minima. Whereas exploitation means that the algorithm intensifies its search surrounding the optimal or near optimal solution to find a better solution. (2) In HSO algorithm, the diversity of generated solutions is more efficiently controlled by two subcomponents (pitch adjustment and randomization) compared with other optimization algorithms that are almost controlled by only one subcomponent. In HSO algorithm, the subcomponent of randomization can ensure this algorithm has at least the same level of efficiency as other optimization methods. Whereas the exploration subcomponent (pitch adjustment) of HSO enhances the generated solution vectors by intensifying randomness to the existing pitch or solution vectors from the harmony memory. In other words, the pitch adjusting subcomponent of HSO works as a refinement process of local solutions. Reservoir engineering history matching questions can be highly non- linear and usually employ a large number of optimization parameters. The exploration function of HSO will work better in solving this kind of question. (3) The coordination between the three components (retention of harmony memory, pitch adjustment, and randomization) of the HSO enables to find unbiased solutions. The interaction between the processes of retention of harmony memory and pitch adjustment ensures that there is potential optimal local solution. Meanwhile, the retention of harmony memory and randomization work interactively to explore the global search space effectively to get a variety of controlled solutions near good solutions. The randomization explores the search space more efficiently and effectively while pitch adjustment ensures that the newly generated solutions are not too far away from existing good solutions. (4) HSO algorithm is much easier in implementation process than other optimization algorithms. This is because the HSO is less sensitive to the optimization parameters. There is no need to adjust the optimization parameters to obtain higher quality solutions.

In comparison, the quality of GA optimization results highly depends on the probabilities of genetic operators (crossover, selection, mutation) and is greatly affected by the tuning ways of these parameters. In addition, the tuning process of GA parameters is a pure random process and depends on trial and error. Also, if the population size assigned to an optimization question utilizing GA is too small, there won’t be enough evolution to go on. There will be a high risk that the whole population set is dominated by a limited number of individuals, which may lead to premature convergence and meaningless solutions[41]. Clerc and Kennedy[42] pointed out that the theoretical mathematical foundation of PSO algorithm was not strong enough. They analyzed the stability of the PSO transmitting matrix and found that there were a limited number of conditions under which the particle could move stably. In addition, according to Shailendra[43], the PSO algorithm would fall into stagnation once the particles have prematurely converged to any particular region of the search space. He also found that PSO algorithm had higher efficiency with small number of particles, but when the number of particles increases, the algorithm became worse in performance. This can be a question in reservoir history matching questions as they usually have many unknown variables to optimize.

2. Application of HSO in assisted history matching of reservoir engineering

2.1. Assisted history matching tests

HSO algorithm was tested in three reservoir engineering history matching questions of different complex degrees namely, two different scales of material balance matching and one reservoir simulation assisted history matching questions to prove the correction and universality of the HSO algorithm.

2.1.1. Single tank material balance matching

Simple single tank material balance problem with a Hurst- van Everdingen-modified aquifer model was constructed. Three uncertain parameters (oil in place, aquifer encroachment angle, and aquifer permeability) are selected as history matching parameters to test the HSO optimization algorithm.

2.1.2. Multiple tanks material balance matching

The multiple-tanksmaterial balance model consists of three fault blocks and each fault block has two layers. Each fault block/layer is modeled with its own material balance model, which gives a total of six compartments. The fault blocks are communicating with some transmissibility across the faults. The model has eight wells in total produced in commingled manner. Twenty uncertain parameters (oil in place, reservoir thickness, aquifer encroachment angle, initial gas cap volume, transmissibility between different reservoirs) of the different fault blocks are selected as history matching parameters.

2.1.3. Reservoir history matching

The reservoir geologic model is shown in Fig. 1. The model includes 3 fault blocks with 3 different initial oil-water contacts and oil-gas contacts. The model size is 50×49×199 and has 487 750 grids. The model contains twenty producers and three injectors.

Fig. 1.   Geologic model of reservoir history matching.


To implement the assisted history matching, fifty history matching parameters were selected, including oil-water contact and gas-oil contacts, permeability multipliers, aquifer porosity, aquifer permeability, aquifer thickness, aquifer encroachment angle, fault transmissibility multipliers of the different fault blocks, Corey exponents of different rock types, critical water saturations of different types of rock, and skin factors of wells etc.

2.2. Comparison of results from different optimization methods

The assisted history matching optimization method pre-sented in this paper was applied to above three history matching questions. The experimental design method used to select the sample points, the size of the search space and proxy modeling technique were the same in HSO, GA and PSO algorithms to ensure that any improvement in the results was brought about by the optimization method only. Sobol sequence was used as the experimental design technique and artificial neural network (ANN) was used as the proxy modeling technique.

The assisted history matching was conducted according to the following procedure: (1) Use MBAL, ECLIPSE and Petrel software tools to generate production data in 10 years with known reservoir parameters. MBAL was used in material balance history matching, while ECLIPSE and was used in reservoir history matching case, Carter Tracy model in Petrel was used to match water layer. (2) Use the generated production data as known historical data in the test questions. (3) Change the original reservoir parameters to obtain unmatched production data.(4) Use Sobol sequence experimental design technique to select the samples of history matching parameters. The selected samples were used to build the scoping runs. (5) Calculate the objective function of each scoping run using equation (2). (6) Build proxy model for the objective function with the experimentally designed reservoir parameter samples. All the proxies were built with ANN method. A two-layer feed-forward network composed of sigmoid transfer function for the hidden neurons and linear transfer function for the output neurons was used to fit the multi-dimensional data. The network was trained with Levenberg-Marquardt back propagation algorithm, during which the training automatically stopped when the ANN mean square error stopped improving. The input and target vectors were randomly divided into three sets: 70% were used to train the network, 15% to validate the network, and 15% to test the network. (7) Minimize the created proxy model with the optimization algorithms. This minimization process was run five times to choose a more representative solution. (8) Use equation (3) to quantify the error between the estimated values from history matching and actual values of the parameters.

$f\left( x \right)=\mathop{\sum }^{}\frac{1}{n}\left\{ \underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{\mathop \sum }}\,{{\left[ {{w}_{i}}{{\left( y_{i}^{\text{*}}-{{y}_{i}} \right)}^{2}} \right]}_{\text{WC}}}+ \right.$ $\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{\mathop \sum }}\,{{\left[ {{w}_{i}}{{\left( y_{i}^{\text{*}}\text{ }\!\!~\!\!\text{ }-{{y}_{i}} \right)}^{2}} \right]}_{\text{GOR}}}+\left. \underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{\mathop \sum }}\,{{\left[ {{w}_{i}}{{\left( y_{i}^{\text{*}}\text{ }\!\!~\!\!\text{ }-{{y}_{i}} \right)}^{2}} \right]}_{\text{P}}} \right\}$
$PI\text{=}\frac{1}{N}\sum\limits_{j=1}^{N}{\left| \frac{{{H}_{\text{est, }j}}-{{H}_{\text{exa, }j}}}{{{H}_{\text{exa, }j}}} \right|}$

Table 1   Performance indicators in different algorithms of the three history matching cases.

Optimization AlgorithmAverage performance indicator/%
Single tank material balanceMultiple tanks material balanceReservoir history matching
GA26.8230.925.38
PSO40.9829.4135.18
HSO12.8620.2922.06

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3. Assisted history matching of reservoir Kareem

3.1. Test of the HSO algorithm in assisted history matching

Kareem reservoir is a mature gas-cap reservoir put into production in December 1988. It showed the drive mechanism of strong gas-cap and weak bottom water aquifer during the production. Structurally, the reservoir consists of three fault blocks and six connected faults. The three fault blocks had the same initial oil-water and gas-oil contacts and followed the same pressure depletion trend. 23 wells have been drilled in the reservoir, of which, 9 are currently in production. Fig. 2 shows the 3D geological model of the reservoir. The model size is 44×119×72), and has 376 992 cells in total and 116 676 active cells. The latest simulation of the reservoir succeeded in matching 28 years of historical data manually. The comprehensive reservoir study took about five months, including 90 d for the manual history match. In this work, HSO was used in the assisted history matching of the Kareem reservoir, and the results were compared with those from manual history matching and GA assisted history matching.

Fig. 2.   3D geological model of Kareem reservoir.


The 15 parameters used in the assisted history matching and manual history matching are shown in Table 2. The workflow of assisted history matching is as follows: (1) Use Sobol sequence experimental design technique to select 25 sample runs out of the uncertainty range of the assigned history matching parameters. (2) The scoping runs contains 26 runs (25 selected by the experimental design method and the rest one represents the most likely values of the history matching parameters) following JUTILA’s rule of thumb[44] that states that the number of scoping runs should not be less than (2N+1) with upper limit of 26 runs. (3) Run the scoping runs over the first half of the historical data (first 14 years). For each scoping run, a multiple objective function was calculated with equation (2). (4) In the proxy model built by ANN, the objective function and the experimentally designed reservoir parameter samples were interpolated. (5) The created ANN proxy model was minimized by HSO and GA. The minimization process was run five times to take a more representative solution by each algorithm. (6) Use the values of the history matching parameters obtained by the two algorithms as input for running the next half of the history matching (last 14 years) in prediction mode. (7) Compare the simulated data of each workflow with the actual data by using the error indicator calculated with equation (4). (8) Petrel and ECLIPSE commercial software programs were used for reservoir simulation of the field case and then MATLAB was used to run the coded assisted history matching workflow.

Table 2   Values of history matching parameters for different workflows.

History matching parameterHistory matching technique
Manual history matchingSobol-
ANN-
HSO
Sobol-
ANN-
GA
Oil water contact/m219121872198
Oil gas contact/m206720662072
Perm. multiplier in X,Y direction5.063.624.21
Perm. multiplier in Z direction5.246.082.23
Critical water saturation/%323334
Corey exponent of water (krow)3.804.443.06
Water relative permeability under
residual oil saturation
0.480.540.48
Corey exponent of oil (krow)3.713.633.91
Corey exponent of oil (krog)3.844.303.09
Oil relative permeability under the
largest oil saturation
0.630.640.63
Corey exponent of Gas (krog)2.311.863.06
Gas relative permeability under
irreducible water saturation
0.850.850.87
Gas relative permeability under
residual oil saturation
0.620.640.60
Volatile gas to oil ratio/(m3•m-3)0.080.080.09
Dissolved gas oil ratio/(m3•m-3)1.081.141.04

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$EI\text{=}\frac{1}{n}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{\mathop \sum }}\,\left[ {{\left( \frac{y_{i}^{\text{*}}-{{y}_{i}}}{{{y}_{i}}} \right)}_{\text{WC}}} \right.+\left. {{\left( \frac{y_{i}^{\text{*}}-{{y}_{i}}}{{{y}_{i}}} \right)}_{\text{GOR}}}\text{+}{{\left( \frac{y_{i}^{\text{*}}-{{y}_{i}}}{{{y}_{i}}} \right)}_{\text{P}}} \right]$

3.2. Results of the assisted history matching

The HSO assisted, manual and GA assisted history matching most widely used were compared in matching quality and time. The matching results of production, water cut, average reservoir pressure and GOR are shown in Figs. 3 to 6. It can be seen from Fig. 3 that the history matching results of oil production rate obtained by the proposed workflow (Sobol- ANN-HSO) are close to that obtained by manual history matching and they are both in good match with the actual data. Whereas the history matching results obtained by the (Sobol-ANN-GA) workflow are poorer in quality than those from the other two workflows, especially in the period between 1991 and 2004. The results of water cut history matching are similar with those of production (Fig. 4). The water cut from Sobol-ANN-GA workflow is lower over the whole lifetime of the reservoir. Whereas the water cut from manual and Sobol- ANN-HSO are close and in better agreement with the actual water cut. Fig. 5 shows the history matching results of average reservoir pressure by the three methods. It can be seen from the figure the simulation results obtained by the manual history matching and Sobol-ANN-HSO are close and better in matching effect than that obtained by Sobol-ANN-GA. The results of gas-oil ratio obtained by the 3 methods don’t have much difference (Fig. 6).

Fig. 3.   History matching results of oil production of Kareem reservoir.


Fig. 4.   History matching results of water cut of Kareem reservoir.


Fig. 5.   History matching results of average pressure of Kareem reservoir.


Fig. 6.   History matching results of gas-oil ratio of Kareem reservoir.


To make a quantitative comparison, the error indicator of each history matched model was calculated, and the results show the error indicators of manual matching, Sobol-ANN- GA, Sobol-ANN- HSO models are 0.698,1.035,and 0.691 respectively. The number of runs to obtain the matching with the three methods are 200, 26, 26 respectively, and the time spent is 90, 2 and 2 d respectively. The Sobol-ANN-HSO method gave the matching model with the lowest error indicator, and is highest in matching quality and efficiency.

Fig. 7. shows the history match quality of the Sobol-ANN- GA method and Sobol-ANN-HSO method on well basis. It can be seen that the quality of matching obtained by Sobol- ANN-HSO is better than that obtained by Sobol-ANN-GA in 6 wells, similar in one well, and poorer in 2 wells.

Fig. 7.   Comparison of quality of history matchings by Sobol- ANN-HSO and Sobol-ANN-GA methods on well basis.


4. Conclusions

It is concluded from 3 history matching cases of reservoir engineering and history matching of Kareem reservoir that the proposed optimization algorithm (HSO) is superior to the GA and PSO optimization techniques commonly used in assisted history matching. The use of HSO in assisted history matching can save time spent on reservoir simulation significantly. The proposed optimization algorithm (HSO) has matching quality close to that of manual history matching, but takes much less time.

Nomenclature

A—harmony component;

EI—error indicator;

f(x)—objective function obtained using a set of history matching parameters x;

Hest—estimated value of history matching parameter;

Hexa—exact value of history matching parameter;

i—serial number of actual data point;

j—serial number of history matching parameter;

Krog—oil gas relative permeability;

M—dimension number of the optimization question;

n—number of observed data points;

N—number of history matching parameters;

PI—performance index, %;

S—size of the harmony memory;

wi—weight to each data set in the objective function;

$y_{i}^{\text{*}}$—simulated data obtained using a set of history matching parameters x;

yi—observed data point;

Φ—fitness.

Subscripts:

GOR—gas-oil ratio;

WC—water cut;

P—pressure.

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